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Internally, sperm mitochondria are a major source of ROS

The bacterial strain was chosen because it has demonstrated great fermentation efficiency in our previous studies 30,33

Oxidative stress may be caused by external and environmental factors as well, such as the use of alcohol, medication, trauma, cold, air pollution, toxins, radiation and UV light

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Activation of oncogenes such as RAS and MYC, along with metabolic reprogramming phenomena like the Warburg effect, further amplify intracellular ROS generation, establishing a reinforcing cycle that perpetuates tumor development [34]