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1 Introduction Glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1) is an incretin hormone released from gut enteroendocrine cells and regulates blood sugar by increasing insulin while reducing glucagon secretion and inhibiting stomach emptying and food intake (Scrocchi et al., 1996), this mechanism propelled the development of GLP-1 receptor agonists (GLP-1RAs), initially approved for diabetes (2005) and later for obesity (2014) (Tang et al., 2024) Ocular diseases, including glaucoma, diabetic retinopathy (DR), and age-related macular degeneration (AMD), impose a staggering global burden, with glaucoma alone affecting 95 million individuals and causing irreversible vision loss in over 10 million (Stein et al., 2021)

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Finally, the intermembrane space contains proteins released during apoptosis as well as enzymes that use ATP to phosphorylate other nucleotides (37)

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